The World Trade Organization Example For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 16 Words: 4669 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Economics Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Executive Summary The World Trade Organisation represents the unifying global association that brings divergent economies, legal systems, customs, internal policies and political systems into a sphere whereby a common ground in terms of a level playing field is established for all member nations. Favouritism, special interest, and other imbalances are eliminated to bring the term globalisation into a uniform as well as universal context. As is expected, the World Trade Organization has defined rules, regulations, procedures and processes to ensure this level playing field remains level, regardless of the size, influence or resources of its differing members. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The World Trade Organization Example For Free" essay for you Create order And therein lies the reason as to why it has been effective. And while there are critics who have their individualistic opinions and comments, some well-founded, and others not, no one has proposed another forum to improve upon and or replace the WTO, which dispute its imperfections, functions! The preceding represents the organisation that the Russian Federation is seeking admission to. Such has been a process that has entailed over a decade and is still not concluded. The reasons for the aforementioned shall be examine herein, as well as the changes, modifications and other facets that the country is being called upon to modify in accordance with accession rules. Given the past history of the Russian Federation, the transition to a market economy has and does represent substantive changes with regard to internal policies and practices impacting upon all areas of the countrys economy. Such transitional changes have been successfully broached by China as well as Vietnam and other former communist states, so the challenge facing the Russian Federation has precedent. This examination shall delve into the aforementioned accession process with respect to the Russian Federation, looking into the countrys most dominant and important industrial sections to gauge the impact the process has, is having and will have in terms of impact. Chapter 1 – Introduction In order to understand the context of the World Trade Organisation as well as its impact on Russia, and its industries, notably oil, gas, and construction, one must delve into the broad area of world trade in general as a foundational understanding for this examination. Globalisation has been utilised as a format to discuss as well as explain many issues, world trade of course being a major component of the foregoing. Mann (1993, p. 9) provides a broad understanding of the complexities and context of globalisation through his statement â€Å"In major transitions the fundamental interrelations, and very identities, of organisations such as ‘economies or ‘states become metamorphosed. Even the very definition of ‘society may change.† The broad reference in terms of globalisation as provided from the preceding points to the need to clarify this catch phrase as used by academia, politicians as well as journalists, and economists concerning its reference in terms of this examination to distinguish it in the context of utilisation. In its general sense, globalisation represents a short method â€Å"†¦of describing the spread and connectedness of production, communication and technologies across the world† (Smith and Doyle, 2002). The context that we utilise globalisation in this examination refers to the processes â€Å"†¦of reducing barriers between countries and encouraging closer economic, political, and social interaction† (Tabb, 1999). Globalisation is also described as â€Å"†¦the creation of international strategies by organizations for overseas expansion and operation on a worldwide level.† (BNET, 2007). As a word, and concept it, globalisation, entails the technological achievements in the fields of travel and shipping, airplanes, communications and data transfer, production and outsourcing, marketing and communications, regional trading organisations and trade blocks as well as ec onomics that has called for the increased recognition of expanding the visions of countries, governments and multinational corporations to include the world view (Berger, 2005, pp. 33-38). It, globalisation, is the processes that refer to increased global interconnectivity as well as integration with respect to economic, social, cultural, political, technological, and ecological practices as countries and companies must utilise a common ground to make their products, goods, services, and ideals acceptable on the world stages in response to other countries and companies competing to expand their influence and economic power (Raskin et al, 2002, pp. 15-13). Theodore Levitt is generally credited with coining the phrase ‘globalisation in 1983 through his book â€Å"The Globalization of Markets† (Harvard Business School, 2006), however, the term, globalisation, can be traced as far back as 1944 with the ending of the Second World War. There are historians as well as economists who indicate that the process of globalisation is a centuries old phenomenon that tracks the process of human expansion, and civilisation which over the past fifty years has intensified dramatically, taking on a more structured foundation that is underpinned by economics, and the needs for uniformity (ORourke and Williamson, 2001, pp. 1-7). An while globalisation, and politics are interrelated, as a result of governmental involvement, Shaw (1999, p. 1) advises that â€Å"†¦politics has been seen as secondary to globalisation; political institutions, forces and ideas are generally believed to be responding to phenomena which are located primarily in other social realms†. This view is also shared by Gray (1998, pp. 34-54) as well as Hirst and Thompson, 1996, pp. 23-41). They explain that globalisation is a reflection of economy, sociology as well as culture, along with philosophy, which has been demonstrated through history in terms of expansionism in the ancient as well as medieval worlds, with politics as the secondary facet. Nicholson (1999, p. 23) amplifies the foregoing in stating that â€Å"†¦there were big population moves from Europe to America, both North and South, followed by the equally large but involuntary movements of Africans to the Americas (prior to 1770, more African slaves than Europeans went to the Americas †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , and that â€Å"†¦Europeans opened up sea routes to India and interactions began even if they were not always welcome †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . The point of the preceding as well as what follows in terms of globalisation, is to illustrate how deeply embedded it is in the global economy as an historical fact that has taken on increased intensity in the twenty-first century. The impact, in terms of increased trade, brought about by globalisation is illustrated in the decrease in poverty rates as shown by the following: Table 1 – Decrease in Global Poverty Rates (World Bank, 2006) Area Demographic 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 Percentage Change 1981-2002 Less than $1 a day 57.7% 38.9% 28.0% 29.6% 24.9% 16.6% 15.7% 11.1% -80.76% Less than $2 a day 84.8% 76.6% 67.7% 69.9% 64.8% 53.3% 50.3% 40.7% -52.00% Less than $1 a day 9.7% 11.8% 10.9% 11.3% 11.3% 10.7% 10.5% 8.9% -8.25% Less than $2 a day 29.6% 30.4% 27.8% 28.4% 29.5% 24.1% 25.1% 23.4% -29.94% Less than $1 a day 41.6% 46.3% 46.8% 44.6% 44.0% 45.6% 45.7% 44.0% +5.77% Less than $2 a day 73.3% 76.1% 76.1% 75.0% 74.6% 75.1% 76.1% 74.9% +2.18% The preceding represents a critical facet in understanding the contribution of globalisation to the increase of living standards through trade, and increased economic activity, which benefits developed as well as under developed countries. Within the context of this examination, the following points to the importance of world trade in terms of Russia in comparison with the rest of the world: Table 2 – Growth in the Val ue of World Merchandise Trade by Region, 2000 – 2005 (World Trade Organization, 2006) As shown by the above, the annual global percentage change in terms of exports during 2000 through 2005 averaged 1 percent, with Russia recording an average growth rate of 18 percent. More telling is that during 2004 and 2005, Russia recorded a percentage increase of 35 and 33 percent, respectively, while the global average increase during those years was 22 and 13 percent. The following Table provides closer insight into the foregoing. Table 3 – World Merchandise Exports by Region (World Trade Organization, 2006) Russias share of world trade between 2000, and 2005 increased by 18 percent in comparison with a global increase of 10 percent, with the countrys increases during 2004 and 2005 recording increases of 36 and 28 percent respectively compared against global trade increases during those years of 22 and 13 percent. The foregoing is the backdrop in terms if unde rstanding the importance of global trade as well as its impact on the countrys economy as shall be further discussed in following chapters. Chapter 2 – Literature Review 2.1 The World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) sets forth governing principles and uniformity regarding â€Å"†¦ the rules of trade between nations at a global level †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (World Trade Organization, 2007a). It represents the primary international organisation to aid in the promotion of free trade through its foundation of rules governing the process on an international level to provide an equitable playing field that is applicable as well as just, and fair to all nations (Free Trade and Globalization, 2007). Organized in 1995, the WTO is the outgrowth of understandings as well as practices that began from the failed International Trade Organization in 1948 (World Trade Organization, 2007b). That attempt was a result of the ‘General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade that was created as a result of the Bretton Woods Conference representing a segment of the larger plan for economic recovery in the aftermath of World War II (Hoekman and Kostecki, 1995, p. 1). Its origin, GATT â€Å"†¦can be traced to the U.S. governments Proposals for the Expansion of World Trade and Employment †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that was subsequently forwarded to all countries (Srinivasan, 1998, p. 9). The Soviet Union represented the notable exception in terms of accepting the preceding invitation, which had also elected not to join the World Bank (Srinivasan, 1998, p. 9). The council oversaw deliberations that resulted in a total of 123 bilateral agreements covering 50,000 items that were negotiated in over 1,000 meeting, which resulted in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade being adopted on 18 November 1947, and signed by 23 countries (Srinivasan, 1998, p. 9). The foregoing was formalised in 1947 at the first meeting of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations held in Havana, Cuba, and said Proposals for the Expansion of World Trade and Employment were adopted unanimously (Srinivasan, 1998, p. 9). At that meeting the Economic and Social Council of th e United Nations â€Å"†¦appointed a preparatory committee for the conference consisting of the United States, Norway, Chile, Lebanon, and the fifteen countries invited by the United States for tariff-reduction negotiations. The Soviet Union again chose not to participate in the deliberations of the preparatory committee† (Srinivasan, 1998, p. 9). Between 1948 and 1994 GATT represented the only multilateral regulating body covering world trade in terms of uniform rules, requirements and measures, until it was replaced by the World Trade Organization in 1995 (Hoekman and Kostecki, 1995, p. 36). For the sake of clarity, GATT represented a set of rules for the conduct of international trade that operated without a solid institutional basis, having no provisional secretariat (UNESCO, 2007). In understanding GATT it is important to be cognizant that it, GATT, was a provisional agreement in terms of its legal status whereas the World Trade Organization, along with its agreements are permanent as well as mandatory (UNESCO, 2007). Another important distinction between the two is that GATT concerned itself only with the trade in goods, whereas the World Trade Organization covers trade in services, termed General Agreement on Trade of Services, trade related to intellectual property, which is called TRIPS as well as the trade in goods under GATT 1994, an updated version of the original GATT agreement of 1947 (UNESCO, 2007). In the World Trade Organization, its agreements are multilateral covering all member states, whereas under GATT the agreements were plurilateral, meaning selective (UNESCO, 2007). Finally, the World Trade Organization has a dispute settlement system that operates in a faster as well as more automatic methodology than the system under GATT, importantly, the WTO rulings cannot be blocked by any member states (UNESCO, 2007). The following provides a summarised illustrative timeline of GATT and the WTO: Table 4 – Time line of GATT and the WTO (Crowley, 2003, p. 43) Consisting of 150 member nations, from its original 23, the World Trade Organization oversees an estimated 97 percent of all global trade (Crowley, 2003, p. 42). The progress of the organisation in aiding in the increase of world trade as a result of the uniformity of its agreements, measures, and dispute resolution is shown by the following: Diagram 1 – Growth of Trade Among WTO Members and Tariff Decline, 1946 through 2001 (Crowley, 2003, p. 44) Reasons that are attributed to the foregoing success are found in the fact that the World Trade Organization represents reciprocity as well as non-discrimination. Reciprocity is the procedure in GATT negotiating rounds whereby a country offers to reduce a trade barrier, and a second country reciprocates through offering to reduce one of its trade barriers (Crowley, 2003, p. 44). Non-discrimination refers to equal treatment. The preceding means that if one country of fers a tariff concession, and or benefit to another member of GATT, said tariff concession, and or benefit must be offered to all GATT members (Crowley, 2003, p. 44). The foregoing two principles, reciprocity and non-discrimination, are termed by Bagwell and Staiger (2001) as the key reasons why the WTO has been successful in its role as the international arbiter of trade. In understanding the importance of the preceding, a brief discussion of tariffs within the WTO is in order. Tariffs are another form of tax, which raises the price consumers must pay for an item (goods), and either brings an imported item into price parity for a countrys domestically produced goods, or raises its price to make it more expensive in relationship to domestically produced goods (Adams et al, 1979, pp. 35-49). In the instance of smaller countries, they benefit from unilaterally lowering their tariffs as they are unable to affect the price of goods sold on the global market (Adams et al, 1979, pp. 35-49). In fact, raising tariffs for a small country would result in its being worse off as a result of the loss of welfare to consumers as transmitted by the higher prices resulting in a loss of efficiency in the market as a result of consumption distortion. In the instance of larger countries whereby their goods comprise a goodly share of the global market, a change in tariff pricing upward constitutes a different effect. This is reflected in the following figure: Diagram 2 Impact of a Tariff on a Large Country (Crowley, 2003, p. 45) The resulting scenario is more complicated. In the instances of a large country import demand represents a large share of the global market (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). As a result, the imposition of a tariff by a large country reduces import quantity demand, and causes global prices to fall (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). In terms of trade the preceding makes a country better off as it now can purchase imports at a lower price on the global mar ket (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). While the consumer pays a higher price on the imported good, the total welfare of the importing country is better off as government earns tariff revenues, and import competing producers thus earn higher profits (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). In terms of the preceding illustration, a key point that needs covering is the burden of the tax (tariff) resulting. The consumers in the subject large country pay a higher cost for the goods that are imported in this instance when the illustrative tariff is imposed, however they do not pay the full burden of the imposed tariff (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). The imposed tariff created a condition whereby the falling world price of the good impacts the foreign exporters who receive a smaller payment, thus the exporting country loses a portion of its purchasing power in terms of the global market in this scenario that worsens its trade (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). As a result some of the cost of the indicated tariff is off loaded onto the foreign producers in terms of the lowered price they receive (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). The foregoing is termed a ‘beggar tariff as the foreign producers suffer losses (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). The utilisation of this type of tariff by a large nation results in the importing country being better off, and thus the exporting country being worse off (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). Furthermore, the preceding produces what are termed as ‘inefficiencies in the global trading system that overall cause the net effect of said tariff to become negative as it produces inefficient distortions in production in both nations (Crowley, 2003, p. 45). The net / net of the foregoing is that the imposed subject example tariff is not good for the global economy as a whole, however, it benefits the importing country. The end of World War II provides an example of the preceding as many countries had high tariffs, which did not benefit the countries, and or consumers (Crowley, 2003, p. 4 5). Cooperative action on the part of countries as found under the WTO has increased the balance of good actions in terms of the foregoing dilemma. GATT, represented and represents the mechanism via which the short sighted self-interest equation has been balanced. GATT, and its reciprocal tariff reductions provided and provide such a mechanism (Narliker, 2003, pp. 12-14). In understanding the picture of global trade flows Hoekman and Kostecki (2001, p. 9) advise â€Å"Global trade flows are dominated by exchanges within and between the three major regions of the global economy (the so-called triad): Europe, North America, and East Asia. The principles and disciplines of the GATT helped governments to liberalize trade and to resist pressures for protection† the foregoing has aided in fostering increased integration of the worlds economy as a result of heightened trade levels. The centrepiece of the preceding is the World Trade Organization, which also works with the I nternational Monetary Fund, the World Bank as well as Regional Trading Blocks, and member government nations. The complexities of world trade, developing nations, and nations ascending to membership in the WTO brings with it economic, social, institutional, policies, and monetary ramifications whereby the WTO does not operate in a vacuum. The process of globalisation in todays terms means closer cooperation between various multilateral institutions in the critical roles of policy formulation as well as the differing elements constituting economic policy frameworks. The preceding means the participation and support along with assistance from the World Bank as well as the International Monetary fund in aiding developing, and ascension countries in meeting the rules, and policies to become a member of the WTO. In understanding the role of the World Trade Organization it is important to note that it does not define, and or specify outcomes for trade policies, it establishes a f ramework (Srinivasan, 1998, pp. 38-41). An example of the foregoing is provided by Article XXIX, Article 4 of the WTO, which aims â€Å"†¦to clarify the conditions under which a regional arrangement, free trade area, customs union or interim arrangement that, after a transition period, may give rise to a customs union or free trade area that is compatible with the GATT† (Landau, 2004, p. 88). The Article continues â€Å"†¦any preferential agreement between developed countries or between the latter and developing countries containing tariff preferences on a defined number of sectors is, on principle, compatible with the WTO. These arrangements must satisfy Article 4 of Article XXIV, in that they have been created in order to facilitate trade and not to form new trade barriers against non-member countries† (Landau, 2004, p. 88). It, Article XXIV, aims at ensuring regional trade arrangements result in the creation of trade as opposed to diverting it, and s eeing that adverse effects are reduced to their minimums (Landau, 2004, p. 88). In addition Article XXIV â€Å"†¦stipulates that customs duties and restrictive trade rules must be eliminated substantially on all sectors of trade originating from the territories of the regional area† (Landau, 2004, p. 88). The main objectives of the World Trade Organization are, 1). Transparency, 2). Coherence, and 3). Tariff Negotiation via which it guide the process. 2.2 The Russian Federation The Soviet Union, now known as the Russia Federation, represents a landmass that is four times the size of Europe, but having less than half of Europes population, and by comparison it is as large as the entire continent of North America (Summer, 1943, p. 1). The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics came into being in 1917, signalling the â€Å"†¦Stalinist revolution of planned industrialization and collectivisation †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Summer, 1943, p. 48). And while the change in regimes was dramatic, many things stayed essentially the same (Summer, 1943, p. 48): the â€Å"†¦ great centralisation of power †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , the â€Å"†¦ enormous range of state action †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , the â€Å"†¦ massive bureaucracy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , the â€Å"†¦ extreme emphasis on the army †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , the â€Å"†¦ drastic use of force and the secret police †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , and the â€Å"†¦semi-deification of the leader or sovereign †¦Ã¢ €  In understanding the Soviet Union, one must be cognizant of four major facets that aid in the explanation of the preceding (Summer, 1943, p. 49): â€Å"†¦the problem of governing an immense area and a multitude of peoples with relatively low material and cultural standards †¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"†¦ the problem of defence †¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"†¦ the impossibility of a complete break with past customs, attitudes of mind and feeling, and ways of doing things †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , and â€Å"†¦ the communist view of the state †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Lenins contribution to Russia was the doctrine of communism that provided â€Å"†¦the goal of communism and the vision of man new made and a revolutionary method the dictatorship of the vanguard of the proletariat organized through the Communist party and linked up with the masses through the soviets† (Summer, 1943, p. 49). â€Å"The idea both of party and of soviets was new to Russia in 1917, but they are the two institutional bases upon which the revolutionary regime has been built up† (Summer, 1943, p. 49). One of the outgrowths of the new Russia was the development of the largest militarised economy ever seen (Gaddy, 1996, p. 1). The preceding is important in understanding the context of the former Soviet economy, and the implications inherent in its ascension to the World Trade Organization. The military represented a â€Å"†¦process that affected the very nature of the system in both its political and economic dimensions† (Gaddy, 1996, p. 1). The foregoing is explained by Gaddy (1996, p. 1) as supported and fed by â€Å"Continual references to a military threat from without, intensified immensely by the campaigns of glorification of sacrifice and patriotism surrounding the victory in World War II, played a major role in creating and perpetuating the climate of secrecy and control that was necessary to justify unquestioning acceptance of Com munist rule†. It is important to understand that the militarist nature of the Soviet Union severely impacted, affected and underpinned the economic system within the country. The post – Soviet era in Russia has changed that underpinning, most notably the removal of restrictions on individuals (Gaddy, 1996, p. 1). The military industrial sector of the economy has been drastically reduced, with the armaments sector producing a very small portion of what it did in 1991 (Gaddy, 1996, p. 1). The importance of the preceding is that two out of three Russian workers who were engaged in military, and or weapons production in a system whereby militarisation represented the manner in which the State restricted free choice and allocated the countrys resources into its priority sectors (Gaddy, 1996, p. 1). While the foregoing is seemingly an issue of the past, the fact is in economic terms it is very much a part of the present, and thus germane to this examination of Russia s economy, and its accession into the World Trade Organisation. The foregoing understanding with regard to the lingering effects of public debt was brought forth by Shutaro Matsushita (1929, p. 5) in the late 1920s through his analysis of â€Å"The Economic Effects of Public Debts†, where he brought forth the concept of ‘forced loans or obligations. The preceding represents when the state undertakes to pursue a path of economic debt. The following reference does not specifically apply itself to the status of events in the Soviet Union, yet its implications in terms of economic consequences is apparent (Matsushita, 1929, p. 85): â€Å"When these government notes are suddenly issued, there is an increase in the medium of exchange, without any commercial necessity for such an increase, in other words, there, is an inflation of the currency. Prices will rise, commercial relations will be disturbed, and creditors will suffer severely. Prices rise because there is an augmented supply of money to carry on exchanges, without any necessary increase in the commodities to be exchanged. Commercial relations are disturbed because merchants and manufacturers must readjust themselves to the, sudden rise in the prices of goods. Creditors suffer, because the same nominal amount of money does not have as much purchasing power as before. Moreover, as is always the case in a period of rising prices, wage-earners suffer because the rise in wages always lags behind the rise in prices.† The size of the Soviet Union provides the country with a broad breathe of natural resources. At 22.4 million square kilometres the Soviet Union is almost four times the size of Europe, and only slightly smaller than North America (countrystudies.us, 2006). Given its vast expanse of land the country traverses a broad range of topography, thus providing it with exposure to differing types of natural resources as a result of the preceding. The country accounts for an estimated 20 percent of the global production of oil and natural gas, with large reserves of both (countrystudies.us, 2006). These reserves generate hard currency for the country, along with its vast reserves of â€Å"†¦ iron ore, manganese, chromium, nickel, platinum, titanium, copper, tin, lead, tungsten, diamonds, phosphates, and gold †¦Ã¢â‚¬  as well as huge timber reserves located in Siberia (countrystudies.us, 2006). This underpinning of vast natural resources is the core from which Russia is able to build its new economy in the face of the collapse of the Soviet Union. From 1927 through 1987, the economy of the Soviet Union operated under the foundational premise as set forth by Joseph Stalin, â€Å"†¦with only incidental modifications made between 1953 and 1987† (countrystudies.us, 2006). The control of the Soviet economy under Stalin represented the utilisation of the ‘Five Year Plan that represented the means for the country to mars hal its vast resources into materials for production (Ilin et al, 1931, p. 18). It was a backward country compared to Europe, primarily Britain, France, and the United States with relatively no internal infrastructure, factories, transportation systems, cities, and industry. The policies of the ‘five year plan have been argued as being one of the most effective means for pulling the then backward Soviet Union out of the eighteenth century, and into the twentieth century as it was such a vast undertaking (Ilin et al, 1931, pp. 27-31). In order to solidify their power the socialists had to find a means to implement real progress within the country as a demonstration of the vision, success, and foresight of their system in addressing the massive problems of the country In addition to the pressures from within, there were external pressures as represented by capitalists countries which were impacting upon internal pricing structures as a result of Russias inability to compe te in terms of productivity, and market efficiencies (James, 1937, pp. 197-207). The ‘five year plan represented a means via which the state could plan the progress of the country as well as administer its control policies, and solidify its absolute power. It, the five-year plan, represented â€Å"†¦the chief mechanisms the Soviet government used to translate economic policies into programs† (countrystudies.us, 2006). For over sixty years the Russian economy was controlled by the state under the principles of centralised planning, which represented virtual control over all aspects of production, investment as well as consumption (countrystudies.us, 2006). The central planning concept also served to enable the country to marshal its resources quickly, as demonstrated by the invasion by Nazi forces. But, the problems of centralised planning, and its abuses were also evident in that Soviet industry was able to purchase raw materials such as oil, coal, and nat ural gas at prices that were below the global market levels, thus encouraging waste, and inefficiencies (countrystudies.us, 2006). The appointment of Mikhial Gorbachev as the General Secretary of the Community Party in 1985 is hailed as the beginning of the demise of the Soviet Union as a result of his reform policies of glasnost, democratisation and most of all perestroika (Graham, 2007). Glasnost (1990) represented a policy that called for openness, maximisation of publicity, and transparency concerning the activities of the state, along with the implementation of freedom of information (Bettaux et al, 2004, p. 8). The preceding was put into effect by Gorbachev in an effort to reduce the internal corruption at the head of the Communist Party as well as government, and Central Committee (Bettaux et al, 2004, p. 10-14). Democratisation in Russia, as brought forth by Gorbachev, implied increased public discussions, primarily on cultural as well as economic issues, along wit h the increased interaction of leaders of the Communist party with the populace, and some liberalisation of personal freedoms and censorship relaxation (Ross, 2002, pp. 18-20). Gorbachev stated in 1989 that theâ€Å"†¦ republics rights of sovereignty were largely formal in nature. Up to now†, and he noted, â€Å"Our state has existed as a centralized and unitary state and none of us has yet the experience of living in a federation† (Kux, 1990, p. 2). Of all of Gorbachevs policies, perestroika is credited with becoming the unintended cat.

What Are Some Effects Of Divorce Or Separation On Children

Review of Literature Research Question: What are some effects of divorce or separation on children? Introduction Divorce is defined as the legal dissolution of a marriage by a court or other competent body. Divorce and parental separation can be very damaging to children and can have adverse effects. (Anderson, 2014, pg 379) Although each family is different, divorce has been shown to cause problems in a child’s relationships with their parents, cause issues in their education, and a child may lose emotional security. (Anderson, 2014, pg 380) He or she possibly having to spend less time with each parent affects his or her relationship with the parent. (Anderson, 2014, pg 380) â€Å"Children of divorced parents are more likely to have lower grade point averages† (Jeynes, 1998). Divorce can affect a child’s emotional security because the child will have a weakened relationship with one of their parents or other relatives. (Amato and Afifi, 2006) Parent- Child Relationships Children, and their love toward their parent â€Å"are an important resource for divorced parents but at the same time, they may necessitate continued contact with their ex-spouse, which may lead to the children being thought of a symbol of disappointment from the marriage† (Cohen, Dottan, pg 82). â€Å"Amato and Booth (1996) found that if there were problems in the parent-child relationship before divorce, it predicted parent’s low affection for their children after divorce during the â€Å"stormy period† or theShow MoreRelatedStruggling with the Idea of Divorce in Constance Matthiessens Article, Harry Potter and Divorce Among the Muggles747 Words   |  3 Pages Divorce it may be an Option! New research into the effects of divorce is slowly bringing around a more common belief that with the appropriate actions the effects divorce has on children can be minimized. 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Daybreak Express free essay sample

Daybreak Express what happens with the beat of the music and the tempo? In Daybreak Express the beat and the tempo of the music is it keeps speeding up and getting more fast peace. What mode of transportation was a favorite of Elongations and is imitated in several of his songs? Elongations favorite mode of transportation would riding the train. 3. What song was the theme song of Duke Elongations band? The theme song of Duke Elongations band is Take the A train. 4.What instrument does Longtime SE to set the mood or rhythm of some of his songs, such as in Sophisticated Lady? Duke Longtime uses the piano to set the mood or rhythm of some of his songs. Longtime started sneaking into Frank Holidays Poolroom at the age of fourteen. Hearing the poolroom pianists play ignited Elongations love for the instrument and he began to take his piano studies seriously. We will write a custom essay sample on Daybreak Express or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 5. What does program music do? Program music is instrumental music that tells a story with explicit episodes or reveals facets off character. Part II 1 .Find an example of onomatopoeia In Dream Boogie and another In The Weary Blues. In Dream Boogie and example would be :Hey Pop, Re-bop, Mop Y-E-A-H and an example In The Weary Blues it would be:He made that poor piano MOAN. 2. Fled an example of assonance In Dream Boogie and another In The Weary Blues. Examples of assonance pop, re-bop, mop; lazy sway poor Plano moan. 3. Len The Weary Blues look at the format of the poem. Notice the lines which are Indented. How does this compare to call and response used In Jazz? When they say, Oh Blues, and Sweet Blues!Its similar to the responses of the congregation to a minister, when the group says, Oh, yeah! and Say It, Brother! 4. Len The Weary Blues there are several examples of personification. List at least two examples. The two examples are Plano moan sleep Like a rock. Len The Weary Blues what words set a tone for the poem? What Is the tone? Lazy, moan, sad, melancholy, troubles, weary, died. Sad, fatigued. 6. An Dream Boogie look at the beat of the lines. What happens as the poem evolves? How does this compare with Daybreak Express by Duke Longtime?They get shorter, thus faster. It makes the person sound more happy excited. 7. Compare Dream Boogie with The Weary Blues. How do the moods of the two poems differ? The mood of the first Is happy excited, the second sad tired. 1 . Find an example of onomatopoeia in Dream Boogie and another in The Weary an example In The Weary Blues it would be:He made that poor piano MOAN. 2. Find an example of assonance in Dream Boogie and another in The Weary Blues. Examples of assonance pop, re-bop, mop; lazy sway poor piano moan.

Critical Commentary of Book Ends by Tony Harrison free essay sample

Book Ends by Tony Harrison is a poem about the death of the writer’s mother, and the effect this has on the complicated relationship between father and son, who are unable to relate to each other or communicate emotionally. The tone of the poem is melancholic, reflecting on the theme of death and the breakup of family, with a bitter edge in the description of the unbridgeable rift between father and son which widens following the mother’s death. The poem is separated into two parts, each with sixteen lines, and is loosely based on an iambic pentameter metre. The rhyme scheme is ABAB throughout the poem, with the noticeable exception of the last four lines of part II, in which it changes to ABBA, reflecting a time shift in the poem’s narration. The first ten lines are made up of couplets, but the general structure is flexible and there is no strict format or line grouping to the poem – this is perhaps representative of the emotions and disjointed thought pr ocesses felt by the writer following his mother’s death. The two parts of the poem take place at different points in time. Narrated by the son from a first person perspective, part I describes his and his father’s reactions immediately after the death of the mother and introduces their problematic relationship. The first line is a sudden and mildly unsettling beginning to the poem, and juxtaposes the homely, familiar image of a homemade apple with the stark reality of death in a reminder that devastation can strike at even the most ordinary of moments. The father and son slowly chew over both the pie and the actuality of the mother’s death as they begin to come to terms with their loss. The father, ‘shocked into sleeplessness’, seems to feel the absence of his wife most profoundly, and his son accuses him of being ‘scared of bed’ and unable to face his loneliness. He reflects that the two of them have always had difficulty communicating, but now in the time when they need each other’s support most they don’t even try and share their grief. This is the first hint of the awkward relationship existing between the father and son, which becomes a central theme later on in the poem. The next two lines are spoken by the mother, who compares her husband and son to book ends. This concept, which the reader first encounters in the title, is an extended simile within the first part of the poem, and characterises the similarities and differences between the father and son. Just like book ends, which look identical but face opposite directions, they are much the same in terms of appearance and habitudes, but as we find out in the next couplet these resemblances only go so far and do not translate into a close relationship. Here we are told that while the father is ‘worn out on poor pay’ and comes from a working class background, the son is a ‘scholar’, who has had a university education. The use of inverted commas here suggests the writer is being sarcastic and somewhat tongue-in-cheek about his educational prowess, which adds a sense of irony to their dissimilarity. This contrast of circumstances means that despite their physical resemblances and close blood relations, they have very little in common – indeed, as the writer says, they are linked solely by their uncommunicativeness: ‘only our silence made us a pair’. In the next couplet, the writer tells us that blue gas fires are ‘not as good for staring in’, perhaps in comparison to a wood fire in the grate the mother described the father and son as hogging earlier on in the poem. This is evidence that time has passed and things, including technology, have moved on from the days which the mother is referring to. It is also a link to Tony Harrison’s poem Long Distance II, in which he tells us that his father kept his mother’s slippers warming by the gas even after her d eath, a habit so ingrained into his everyday life that he can’t help himself from continuing it even when the wearer of the slippers is long gone. The writer makes a point of comparing the two types of flame: this could indicate that he has a lot of time on his hands, and, without any idea of how to fill it, spends long hours staring into the fire, perhaps in his father’s silent company. He describes the blue gas flame as being ‘too regular each bud, each yellow spike’, and this criticism is perhaps evidence of his inner turmoil and a need for a chaotic emotional outlet. The next couple of lines portray the idea that it is only through the mother that the father and son are united. In life, her presence and assurances that they are alike linked them, and once she is gone, there is little to bring them together except their shared grief, which as they are so emotionally divided they find impossible to communicate. Up until this point, the narrator of the poem has clearly been the son, but it is unclear who is speaking in the line ‘Your life’s all shattered to smithereens’, or indeed whose life is being referred to in this highly effective image of broken glass, smashed into tiny shards. It could be the son talking to the father or vice versa, or the mother talking to either one of them, but equally the shattered life in question could be the mother’s, in that her life, which once combined her husband, her son and herself in one family, is now fragmented into separate pieces following her death as the father and son drift apart. Earlier on in the poem we are told that the son and father come from very different cultural backgrounds, but it is only in the last three lines of the part I that we realise that the son’s education is not merely a dividing factor but a considerable bone of contention between him and his father. In an attempt to bond with each other, t hey turn to drink to forget their grief, but it is to no avail as they revert to their perpetual silence and inability to relate to one another, communicating solely by ‘sullen looks’. Separated by the son’s academia and learning, it is not age which poses the problem, but a university degree and ‘books, books, books’. This repetition is effective in emphasising the gap between them, and concludes the extended metaphor of part I: the books, representing knowledge and education, do not only alienate the father and son, but also separate the book ends to which the two men are compared earlier in the poem, in a highly effective double metaphor. The second part jumps forward in time, to a point a while after the mother’s death when the father and son, divided in all other fields but united once more by the mother, are deciding what to have cut on her gravestone. As they come from a modest financial background, the stone is far from grand and there is little room for flowery words or description, so the wording must be concise and to the point. In the next couplet, the father expresses his anger and exasperation: he was certain that with his son’s learning and knowledge of words he would effortlessly produce something touching and eloquent for the headstone, but the son, devastated by his mother’s death, is unable to find the words needed to commemorate her in his grief. The father is incredulous, and tells him dismissively that ‘it’s not as if we’re wanting verse’, implying that it must be easier to  find the words to write on his one’s mother’s gravestone than to write a poem. The next few lines of the poem are further evidence of the father and son’s lack of common relations, as they are united once more by alcohol in their attempt to deal with their suffering. Under the influence of whisky, perhaps the only way he can express himself without inhibitions, the father says he had always been ‘clumsy talker’, and admits that he can’t come up with anything better for the headstone that ‘beloved wife’, which he seems to consider inelegant and unworthy of the emotion he would express if he had the words to do so. There is a certain bitterness in the writer’s tone when he reflects that while his father is open about his own lack of eloquence, which itself reveals hi s working class origins, his words are not so unpolished to be incapable of making a caustic remark. The phrase ‘still can’t cut’ has a double meaning, as it refers to both this and the action of cutting the words into the gravestone. The father’s anger is manifest at his son’s inability to produce an inscription for the grave, and he tells his son that he is ‘supposed to be the bright boy at description’, in an obvious jibe about his university education. The use of an exclamation mark and the word ‘fuck’ in his comment are evidence of his considerable anger and frustration, and are also evidence of a dysfunctional family situation. The line ‘I’ve got to find the right words on my own’ is another ambiguous line, as it is not clear who is speaking. The reader gets the idea that the father could be saying the words after he realises his son is incapable of producing anything better, in a kind of exasperation. However the line could also be spoken by the writer, either as a response to the father’s insistence that he come up with something beautiful and touching for the inscription, or some time afterwards, when his father has passed away and he is left truly alone to choose the words for their shared headstone. This double narrative emphasises the solitude of the two men in the face of death, and their isolation from one another. In the last three lines, the writer tells us he has found the envelope on which his father had been scribbling ideas for his wife’s headstone. He describes the words as ‘mis-spelt, mawkish’ and ‘stylistically appalling’, but admits that he cannot find a way to better express the loss he has experienced, or in other words is unable to ‘squeeze more love into their stone’. The use of the word ‘their’ in this metaphor subtly explains that the gravestone is shared, and  that the father has passed away and is now buried alongside the writer’s mother. It is in this final concluding line that the writer freely admits that despite his education and writing ability, he cannot seem to manage to write anything more honest or pure than his father’s unsophisticated words. The poem has a personal register, with intimate emotional description. The majority of the lines use informal language and syntax, such as the father’s exclamation ‘Come on, it’s not as if we’re wanting verse’, which is very much an expression of the vernacular. By avoiding overly flamboyant phrases, the poem does not lose its authenticity, and the raw emotion comes across effortlessly. Simple and unaffected, the writer’s voice relates with painfully truthful accuracy the consequences the death of a loved one can have on an already strained family situation. Tony Harrison is open and honest, and his poem uses a remarkable lack of the melodramatic imagery and ideas expressed in many poems which deal with death. In this way Book Ends shares certain likenesses with his poem Long Distance II, which is similarly written in a conversational tone and contains few grandiloquent metaphors. A major theme in Book Ends is one of pairs. Aside from the book ends of the title, the father and son are made to ‘seem a pair’ in their habits and appearances, and it is this comparison which is at an uncomfortable odds with the rest of the themes discussed, primarily the conflict between the two of them. Furthermore, the poem is structured into two parts, again reflecting the idea of pairs. The poem Book Ends is a reflection on the inadequacy of words, and that the feeling behind them is often more important than the way the idea is expressed. Tony Harrison considers what it is to be a poet, and what purpose it serves to be able to manipulate words into shapes and images if, even as a learned man with a greater degree of education than his working class father can ever hope to have, he is unable to produce a fitting tribute to his departed parents.